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The theory is usually contrasted with a theory that talks about events occurring in the fullness of time, or when an overwhelming wave of smaller events causes certain developments to occur. The Great Man approach to history was most fashionable with professional historians in the 19th century; a popular work of this school is the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911) which contains lengthy and detailed biographies about the great men of history, but very few general or social histories. For example, all information on the post-Roman "Migrations Period" of European History is compiled under the biography of Attila the Hun. This heroic view of history was also strongly endorsed by some philosophical figures such as Hegel, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Spengler, but it fell out of favor after World War II. In Untimely Meditations, Nietzsche writes that: "...the goal of humanity lies in its highest specimens". In Fear and Trembling, Kierkegaard writes that: "...to be able to fall down in such a way that the same second it looks as if one were standing and walking, to transform the leap of life into a walk, absolutely to express the sublime and the pedestrian -- that only these knights of faith can do -- this is the one and only prodigy." Hegel, proceeding from providentialist theory, argued that what is real is reasonable and World-Historical individuals are World-Spirit's agents. Thus, according to Hegel, a great man does not create historical reality himself but only uncovers the inevitable future. |
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Homer – Iliad; Odyssey The Old Testament Aeschylus – Tragedies Sophocles – Tragedies Herodotus – Histories Euripides – Tragedies Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War Hippocrates – Medical Writings Aristophanes – Comedies Plato – Dialogues Aristotle – Works Epicurus – "Letter to Herodotus"; "Letter to Menoecus" Euclid – Elements Archimedes – Works Apollonius – Conics Cicero – Works (esp. Orations; On Friendship; On Old Age; Republic; Laws; Tusculan Disputations; Offices) Lucretius – On the Nature of Things Virgil – Works (esp. Aeneid) Horace – Works (esp. Odes and Epodes; The Art of Poetry) Livy – History of Rome Ovid – Works (esp. Metamorphoses) Quintilian – Institutes of Oratory Plutarch – Parallel Lives; Moralia Tacitus – Histories; Annals; Agricola; Germania; Dialogus de oratoribus (Dialogue on Oratory) Nicomachus of Gerasa – Introduction to Arithmetic Epictetus – Discourses; Enchiridion Ptolemy – Almagest Lucian – Works (esp. The Way to Write History; The True History; The Sale of Creeds; Alexander the Oracle Monger; Charon; The Sale of Lives; The Fisherman; Dialogue of the Gods; Dialogues of the Sea-Gods; Dialogues of the Dead) Marcus Aurelius – Meditations Galen – On the Natural Faculties The New Testament Plotinus – The Enneads St. Augustine – "On the Teacher"; Confessions; City of God; On Christian Doctrine The Volsungs Saga or Nibelungenlied The Song of Roland The Saga of Burnt Njál Maimonides – The Guide for the Perplexed St. Thomas Aquinas – Of Being and Essence; Summa Contra Gentiles; Of the Governance of Rulers; Summa Theologica Dante Alighieri – The New Life (La Vita Nuova); "On Monarchy"; Divine Comedy Geoffrey Chaucer – Troilus and Criseyde; The Canterbury Tales Thomas a Kempis – The Imitation of Christ Leonardo da Vinci – Notebooks Niccolò Machiavelli – The Prince; Discourses on the First Ten Books of Livy Desiderius Erasmus – The Praise of Folly; Colloquies Nicolaus Copernicus – On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres Thomas More – Utopia Martin Luther – Table Talk; Three Treatises François Rabelais – Gargantua and Pantagruel John Calvin – Institutes of the Christian Religion Michel de Montaigne – Essays William Gilbert – On the Lodestone and Magnetic Bodies Miguel de Cervantes – Don Quixote Edmund Spenser – Prothalamion; The Faerie Queene Francis Bacon – Essays; The Advancement of Learning; Novum Organum; New Atlantis William Shakespeare – Poetry and Plays Galileo Galilei – Starry Messenger; Two New Sciences Johannes Kepler – The Epitome of Copernican Astronomy; Harmonices Mundi William Harvey – On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals; On the Circulation of the Blood; Generation of Animals Grotius – The Law of War and Peace Thomas Hobbes – Leviathan; Elements of Philsophy René Descartes – Rules for the Direction of the Mind; Discourse on the Method; Geometry; Meditations on First Philosophy; Principles of Philosophy; The Passions of the Soul Corneille – Tragedies (esp. The Cid, Cinna) John Milton – Works (esp. the minor poems; Areopagitica; Paradise Lost; Samson Agonistes) Molière – Comedies (esp. The Miser; The School for Wives; The Misanthrope; The Doctor in Spite of Himself; Tartuffe; The Tradesman Turned Gentleman; The Imaginary Invalid; The Affected Ladies) Blaise Pascal – The Provincial Letters; Pensées; Scientific Treatises Boyle – The Sceptical Chemist Christiaan Huygens – Treatise on Light Benedict de Spinoza – Political Treatises; Ethics John Locke – A Letter Concerning Toleration; Of Civil Government; An Essay Concerning Human Understanding; Some Thoughts Concerning Education Jean Baptiste Racine – Tragedies (esp. [[|Andromaque|Andromache]]; Phaedra; Athalie (Athaliah)) Isaac Newton – Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy; Opticks Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz – Discourse on Metaphysics; New Essays on Human Understanding; Monadology Daniel Defoe – Robinson Crusoe; Moll Flanders Jonathan Swift – The Battle of the Books; A Tale of a Tub; A Journal to Stella; Gulliver's Travels; A Modest Proposal William Congreve – The Way of the World George Berkeley – A New Theory of Vision; A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge Alexander Pope – An Essay on Criticism; The Rape of the Lock; An Essay on Man Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu – Persian Letters; The Spirit of the Laws Voltaire – Letters on the English; Candide; Philosophical Dictionary; [[Toleration Henry Fielding – Joseph Andrews; Tom Jones Samuel Johnson – The Vanity of Human Wishes; Dictionary; Rasselas; Lives of the Poets David Hume – A Treatise of Human Nature; Essays Moral and Political; An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding; History of England Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Discourse on Inequality; On Political Economy; Emile; The Social Contract; Confessions Laurence Sterne – Tristram Shandy; A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy Adam Smith – The Theory of Moral Sentiments; The Wealth of Nations William Blackstone – Commentaries on the Laws of England Immanuel Kant – Critique of Pure Reason; Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals; Critique of Practical Reason; Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics; The Science of Right; Critique of Judgment; Perpetual Peace Edward Gibbon – The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire; Autobiography James Boswell – Journal; The Life of Samuel Johnson Antoine Laurent Lavoisier – Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elements of Chemistry) Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison – Federalist Papers (together with the Articles of Confederation; United States Constitution and United States Declaration of Independence) Jeremy Bentham – Comment on the Commentaries; Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation; Theory of Fictions Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – Faust; Poetry and Truth Thomas Robert Malthus – An Essay on the Principle of Population John Dalton – A New System of Chemical Philosophy Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier – Analytical Theory of Heat Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – The Phenomenology of Spirit; Science of Logic; Elements of the Philosophy of Right; Lectures on the Philosophy of History William Wordsworth – Poems (esp. Lyrical Ballads; Lucy poems; sonnets; The Prelude) Samuel Taylor Coleridge – Poems (esp. Kubla Khan; The Rime of the Ancient Mariner ); Biographia Literaria David Ricardo – On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation Jane Austen – Pride and Prejudice; Emma Carl von Clausewitz – On War Stendhal – The Red and the Black; The Charterhouse of Parma; On Love François Guizot – History of Civilization in France Lord Byron – Don Juan Arthur Schopenhauer – Studies in Pessimism Michael Faraday – The Chemical History of a Candle; Experimental Researches in Electricity Nikolai Lobachevsky – Geometrical Researches on the Theory of Parallels Charles Lyell – Principles of Geology Auguste Comte – The Positive Philosophy Honoré de Balzac – Works (esp. Le Père Goriot; Le Cousin Pons; Eugénie Grandet; Cousin Bette; César Birotteau) Ralph Waldo Emerson – Representative Men; Essays; Journal Nathaniel Hawthorne – The Scarlet Letter Alexis de Tocqueville – Democracy in America John Stuart Mill – A System of Logic; Principles of Political Economy; On Liberty; Considerations on Representative Government; Utilitarianism; The Subjection of Women; Autobiography Charles Darwin – On the Origin of Species; The Descent of Man; Autobiography William Makepeace Thackeray – Works (esp. Vanity Fair; The History of Henry Esmond; The Virginians; Pendennis) Charles Dickens – Works (esp. Pickwick Papers; Our Mutual Friend; David Copperfield; Dombey and Son; Oliver Twist; A Tale of Two Cities; Hard Times) Claude Bernard – Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine George Boole – The Laws of Thought Henry David Thoreau – Civil Disobedience; Walden Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels – Das Kapital (Capital); The Communist Manifesto George Eliot – Adam Bede; Middlemarch Herman Melville – Typee; Moby-Dick; Billy Budd Fyodor Dostoevsky – Crime and Punishment; The Idiot; The Brothers Karamazov Gustave Flaubert – Madame Bovary; Three Stories Henry Thomas Buckle – A History of Civilization in England Francis Galton – Inquiries into Human Faculties and Its Development Bernhard Riemann – The Hypotheses of Geometry Henrik Ibsen – Plays (esp. Peer Gynt; Brand; Hedda Gabler; Emperor and Galilean; A Doll's House; The Wild Duck; The Master Builder) Leo Tolstoy – War and Peace; Anna Karenina; "What Is Art?"; Twenty-Three Tales Richard Dedekind – Theory of Numbers Wilhelm Wundt – Physiological Psychology; Outline of Psychology Mark Twain – The Innocents Abroad; Adventures of Huckleberry Finn; A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court; The Mysterious Stranger Henry Adams – History of the United States; Mont-Saint-Michel and Chartres; The Education of Henry Adams; Degradation of Democratic Dogma Charles Peirce – Chance, Love, and Logic; Collected Papers William Sumner – Folkways Oliver Wendell Holmes – The Common Law; Collected Legal Papers William James – Principles of Psychology; The Varieties of Religious Experience; Pragmatism; A Pluralistic Universe; Essays in Radical Empiricism Henry James – The American; The Ambassadors Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche – Thus Spoke Zarathustra; Beyond Good and Evil; On the Genealogy of Morality; The Will to Power; Twilight of the Idols; The Antichrist Georg Cantor – Transfinite Numbers Jules Henri Poincaré – Science and Hypothesis; Science and Method; The Foundations of Science Sigmund Freud – The Interpretation of Dreams; Three Essays to the Theory of Sex; Introduction to Psychoanalysis; Beyond the Pleasure Principle; Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego; The Ego and the Id; Civilization and Its Discontents; New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis George Bernard Shaw – Plays and Prefaces Max Planck – Origin and Development of the Quantum Theory; Where Is Science Going?; Scientific Autobiography Henri Bergson – Time and Free Will; Matter and Memory; Creative Evolution; The Two Sources of Morality and Religion John Dewey – How We Think; Democracy and Education; Experience and Nature; The Quest for Certainty; Logic – The Theory of Inquiry Alfred North Whitehead – A Treatise on Universal Algebra; An Introduction to Mathematics; Science and the Modern World; Process and Reality; The Aims of Education and Other Essays; Adventures of Ideas George Santayana – The Life of Reason; Scepticism and Animal Faith; The Realms of Being (which discusses the Realms of Essence, Matter and Truth); Persons and Places Vladimir Lenin – Imperialism; The State and Revolution Marcel Proust – In Search of Lost Time (formerly translated as Remembrance of Things Past Bertrand Russell – Principles of Mathematics; The Problems of Philosophy; Principia Mathematica; The Analysis of Mind; An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth; Human Knowledge, Its Scope and Limits Thomas Mann – The Magic Mountain; Joseph and His Brothers Albert Einstein – The Theory of Relativity; Sidelights on Relativity; The Meaning of Relativity; On the Method of Theoretical Physics; The Evolution of Physics James Joyce – "The Dead" in Dubliners; A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man; Ulysses Jacques Maritain – Art and Scholasticism; The Degrees of Knowledge; Freedom and the Modern World; A Preface to Metaphysics; The Rights of Man and Natural Law; True Humanism Franz Kafka – The Trial; The Castle Arnold J. Toynbee – A Study of History; Civilization on Trial Jean-Paul Sartre – Nausea; No Exit; Being and Nothingness Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn – The First Circle; Cancer Ward Ivan Pavlov – Conditioned Reflexes Thorstein Veblen – The Theory of the Leisure Class; The Higher Learning in America; The Place of Science in Modern Civilization; Vested Interests and the State of Industrial Arts; Absentee Ownership and Business Enterprise in Recent Times Franz Boas – The Mind of Primitive Man; Anthropology and Modern Life Leon Trotsky – The History of the Russian Revolution |